Class D amplifiers do not amplify continuously they switch at hundreds of kilohertz and let a low-pass filter reconstruct the audio. Losses collapse because transistors are either fully on or fully off. Efficiencies of 90 %+ put a 100 W amplifier in a palm-sized box.
At a glance: 8 minute guide · part 7 of 10 in the amplifiers complete guide track · includes a worked example and a quick-reference table.
Modulation and the filter
Here is the working theory in one pass. The input is compared against a triangle wave, producing PWM whose duty tracks the audio. After the switching stage, an LC filter strips the carrier, leaving amplified audio. Filter design and load interaction set the high-frequency behaviour speakers are not resistors.
| Aspect | Class AB | Class D |
|---|---|---|
| Efficiency (typical) | 50-65 % | 85-93 % |
| Idle dissipation | Moderate | Milliwatts-small |
| Size for 100 W | Heatsink-dominated | Palm-sized modules |
| Distortion (modern parts) | Very low | Comparable |
| Design complexity | Analog craft | Controller + layout rules |
Dead time and distortion
Both switches cannot conduct simultaneously (shoot-through). The protective dead time between transitions is the main distortion generator. Modern controller ICs shrink it to nanoseconds. EMI is the second tax layout discipline like any switching power design.
Why modern Class D wins
Post-filter feedback and integrated controller chips lifted performance into territory AB once owned: THD under 0.01 %, idle currents of milliamps. Thermal budgets that fit inside powered speakers and car audio without heroic sinks.
How to apply this in your build
Work through the sequence below each step assumes the previous one passed. For numbers that need calculating, the linked tools at the end of this guide do the arithmetic instantly.
- Choose a controller/module with post-filter feedback for serious audio
- Follow the layout and inductor recommendations exactly
- Verify stability into the real speaker load
- Filter and snub the supply rail for EMI compliance
Worked example
A 2×50 W Class D board idles at ~30 mA from 24 V under a watt. The AB amplifier it replaced idled at 8 W doing the same job. A battery-life multiplication in portable rigs. Run the numbers yourself with the 555 Timer Astable Mode and the result should agree to within rounding.
Practical note from the bench. Class D demands switching-supply layout instincts our board notes treat it exactly like a buck converter that happens to carry audio.
Common mistakes to avoid
- Ignoring the specified output inductor and "any toroid" substituting
- Loose layout around the switching node radiating havoc
- Expecting filter-free boards to behave into capacitive loads
Key takeaways
- Modulation and the filter the foundation of this guide; revisit it if any measurement here surprises you.
- Dead time and distortion the foundation of this guide; revisit it if any measurement here surprises you.
- Why modern Class D wins the foundation of this guide; revisit it if any measurement here surprises you.
Who this guide is for
Beginners get a single focused topic instead of a whole textbook chapter. It assumes the track’s earlier pages in the amplifiers complete guide path. Intermediate readers use it as a reference the table, the worked example and the mistake list answer the questions that come up mid-build. If you teach, the structure (theory, application, example, failure modes) maps cleanly onto a lab session.
What you need before starting
Nothing exotic: the parts or tools named in the guide, a multimeter. The 555 Timer Astable Mode / Electrical Power Calculator open in a tab. Choose a controller/module with post-filter feedback for serious audio before you begin the guide assumes it and keep the quick-reference table above within sight while you work through the steps.
Quick reference card
| Aspect | Where to find it in this guide |
|---|---|
| Core theory | Modulation and the filter |
| Application steps | How to apply this in your build |
| Worked numbers | Worked example |
| Failure modes | Common mistakes to avoid |
How this fits the amplifiers complete guide track
This guide is one stop in the structured learning path. Start from the amplifiers complete guide complete guide for the full map, or continue with Class AB stages and buck converter principles. For the arithmetic, open the 555 Timer Astable Mode or Electrical Power Calculator.
Frequently asked questions
Does Class D sound digital? The output is analog after filtering; modern implementations measure transparently. Old reputation came from early parts and layout sins.
Can I build my own from discretes? Educationally yes; practically, integrated controllers deliver performance no bench-built discrete bridge matches on deadline.
Is there a calculator for this? Yes the 555 Timer Astable Mode and Electrical Power Calculator tools run the formulas from this guide instantly, client-side, with no signup.
Continue the learning path
- The complete amplifiers & audio guide: Amplifiers & Audio complete guide
- Read next: inverting op-amp: gain, virtual ground and design
- Also in this track: non-inverting op-amp: high-impedance gain stage
- Continue with: the op-amp voltage follower: small circuit, big leverage
- Calculate as you go: op-amp gain calculator · power dissipation tool · gain to dB converter
- Bookmark this page against the day a measurement surprises you. Most readers return to the table and the mistake list first, and that is the correct order.
Measurement discipline
When a result here disagrees with your expectation, write down both numbers before changing anything. The gap between predicted and measured is where the real engineering lives. It is usually a tolerance, a parasitic or an assumption that was never checked.
Keep a lab notebook entry for every build in this track. The measured values, the deviations from the guide and the reason for each. Six months from now, those notes are worth more than any tutorial. They describe your bench and your components rather than a general case.
Formulas and checks from this guide
Verification checklist for this track: measure bias at idle before signal testing, check heatsink temperature under load. Confirm gain across frequency rather than at 1 kHz alone. Amplifiers forgive nothing at their edges.
Bookmark this page against your next build in the track. The checklist above is the same one used across 19 guides in this series.
Hard-won notes
Across the emitter resistors at idle, no signal. Compare each output device.
Thermal drift in bias. Check the bias tracker is bolted to the heatsink and re-set per the service values.
Extended Application Notes
This section expands the practical application of class d amplifiers: how switching beats heat beyond the worked example, into the situations builders actually meet. Component substitution: when the exact specified part is unavailable, the substitution logic follows the governing parameter of this design, not the nominal value, and the verification step after any substitution is to re-measure the one quantity this guide identified as critical. Batch variation: components vary, and the design margins recommended in the sections above absorb that variation; if a second build behaves differently, the difference itself is diagnostic and points to the tolerance that dominated. Environmental limits: temperature, supply variation and ageing each push a real circuit away from its bench behaviour, and the recommended practice is to test the extremes deliberately rather than discover them in the field. These notes exist because the bench taught them, repeatedly, and each one was once a real troubleshooting session that ended in understanding.
Failure Analysis in Depth
The mistakes section above lists the traps; this section explains why each trap exists and how to recognize it early. Ignoring the specified output inductor and "any toroid" substituting Loose layout around the switching node radiating havoc Expecting filter-free boards to behave into capacitive loads. Each of these failures has a signature that appears in measurement before it appears in smoke: a reading that drifts, a waveform that differs from the prediction, a temperature that climbs faster than the calculation. The discipline this guide teaches is to measure at the first sign, not at the last, and the sections above give the specific instrument and setting for each check. Failure analysis is not pessimism; it is the fastest curriculum in electronics, because a fault understood once is a fault prevented forever.
Pre-Build Checklist
Before powering any build of this design, run the list: every component value verified against the specification above, the critical measurement points identified and accessible, the instrument modes and ranges chosen in advance, the expected values written down beside the bench, and the power source current-limited for first application. The checklist takes two minutes and replaces the most expensive class of beginner error, which is not ignorance but confidence outrunning verification. Builders who adopt the checklist across the guides in this track report first-apply success rates that feel like cheating, but it is not cheating, it is engineering.
What Comes Next
Having worked through this guide, the natural next steps are the adjacent guides in the track index above, each of which assumes exactly the vocabulary this page built. The calculators linked in the tools section verify every number in seconds, and the complete guide at the head of this track maps the entire curriculum. Read once, build once, measure always: that is the method this site teaches and the method every section above followed before publication.
Theory in Practice, Extended
The theory section of class d amplifiers: how switching beats heat deserves one more pass with the bench in mind, because knowing a relationship and applying it under constraint are different skills. In application, the relationship is never isolated: it interacts with tolerances, with temperature, with the behaviour of adjacent stages, and with the measurement itself. The extended practice is to take the governing formula from the sections above and stress it, deliberately. Push the input to the edge of its specified range and watch the output follow the prediction, then push past it and watch the prediction break, because the edge of the specification is exactly where the formula stops being the whole story. That boundary, found on the bench rather than in the datasheet, is the real knowledge this guide offers beyond the mathematics.
Component Sourcing and Substitution Notes
Real builds meet real supply chains, and this section addresses the practical reality. The specified components in this guide were chosen for the reasons stated in the design sections, but equivalent parts from reputable manufacturers almost always serve, provided the governing parameters match, not merely the nominal ones. The substitution checklist: match the parameter this guide identified as critical, verify the package and pinout against the physical part before layout, check the datasheet revision for silent changes, and re-run the verification measurement after installation. Avoid unbranded surplus and marketplace components for anything this guide treats as safety-relevant; the failure mode of a counterfeit is not degradation, it is unpredictability, and unpredictability defeats every other design decision in the chain.
Instrumentation for This Design
Every measurement recommended in this guide maps to a specific instrument configuration, and this section consolidates them. Voltage checks: DC range selected before probing, leads verified against a known source, meter burden considered when the node is high impedance. Current checks: circuit broken at the defined point, meter inserted with the correct range and fuse status confirmed first. Waveform checks: probe compensated against the reference before any amplitude claim, ground lead kept short, bandwidth sufficient for the edge rather than the repetition rate. The instrumentation discipline matters more than the instrument class, and a modest instrument used correctly outperforms an expensive one used casually, a claim this site demonstrates throughout its measurement guides.
Documentation Template for This Build
Close the loop the way professional builds do: record the design values from this guide, the as-built values including every substitution, the measured results beside the predicted ones, and the deviation notes that explain every gap. The template is short, a single page, and it converts a successful build into a reference that survives component changes, firmware updates and the passage of months. Every guide on this site was built and documented exactly this way before publication, and the discipline is offered here as part of the curriculum rather than an afterthought. A build that is documented is twice built, once in copper and once in confidence.
Last updated 23 August 2026